Uroguanylin, guanylin and bacterial ST peptides are structurally related peptides that bind to a guanylate cyclase receptor and stimulate intracellular production of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) (1–6). This results in the activation of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), an apical membrane channel for efflux of chloride from enterocytes lining the intestinal tract (1–6). Activation of CFTR and the subsequent enhancement of transepithelial secretion of chloride leads to stimulation of sodium and water secretion into the intestinal lumen. Therefore, by serving as paracrine regulators of CFTR activity, cGMP receptor agonists regulate fluid and electrolyte transport in the GI tract (1–6; U.S. Pat. No. 5,489,670).
The process of epithelial renewal involves the proliferation, migration, differentiation, senescence, and eventual loss of GI cells in the lumen (7,8 ). The GI mucosa can be divided into three distinct zones based on the proliferation index of epithelial cells. One of these zones, the proliferative zone, consists of undifferentiated stem cells responsible for providing a constant source of new cells. The stem cells migrate upward toward the lumen to which they are extruded. As they migrate, the cells lose their capacity to divide and become differentiated for carrying out specialized functions of the GI mucosa (9). Renewal of GI mucosa is very rapid with complete turnover occurring within a 24–48 hour period (9). During this process mutated and unwanted cells are replenished with new cells. Hence, homeostasis of the GI mucosa is regulated by continual maintenance of the balance between proliferation and apoptotic rates (8 ).
The rates of cell proliferation and apoptosis in the gut epithelium can be increased or decreased in a wide variety of different circumstances, e.g., in response to physiological stimuli such as aging, inflammatory signals, hormones, peptides, growth factors, chemicals and dietary habits. In addition, an enhanced proliferation rate is frequently associated with a reduction in turnover time and an expansion of the proliferative zone (10). The proliferation index has been observed to be much higher in pathological cases of ulcerative colitis and other GI disorders (11). Thus, intestinal hyperplasia is the major promoter of gastrointestinal inflammation and carcinogenesis.
In addition to a role for uroguanylin and guanylin as modulators of intestinal fluid and ion secretion, these peptides may also be involved in the continual renewal of GI mucosa. Previously published data in WO 01/25266 suggests a peptide with the active domain of uroguanylin may function as an inhibitor of polyp development in the colon and may constitute a treatment of colon cancer. However, the mechanism by which this is claimed to occur is questionable in that WO 01/25266 teaches uroguanylin agonist peptides that bind specifically to a guanylate cyclase receptor, termed GC-C, that was first described as the receptor for E. coli heat-stable enterotoxin (ST) (4). Knockout mice lacking this guanylate cyclase receptor show resistance to ST in intestine, but effects of uroguanylin and ST are not disturbed in the kidney in vivo (3). These results were further supported by the fact that membrane depolarization induced by guanylin was blocked by genistein, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, whereas hyperpolarization induced by uroguanylin was not effected (12,13). Taken together these data suggest that uroguanylin also binds to a currently unknown receptor, which is distinct from GC-C.
Other papers have reported that production of uroguanylin and guanylin is dramatically decreased in pre-cancerous colon polyps and tumor tissues (14–17). In addition, genes for both uroguanylin and guanylin have been shown to be localized to regions of the genome frequently associated with loss of heterozygosity in human colon carcinoma (18–20). Taken together, these findings indicate that uroguanylin, guanylin and other peptides with similar activity may be used in the prevention or treatment of abnormal colon growths. This proposal is bolstered by a recent study demonstrating oral administration of uroguanylin inhibits polyp formation in mice (15,16).
Uroguanylin and guanylin peptides also appear to promote apoptosis by controlling cellular ion flux. Alterations in apoptosis have been associated with tumor progression to the metastatic phenotype. While a primary gastrointestinal (GI) cancer is limited to the small intestine, colon, and rectum, it may metastasize and spread to such localities as bone, lymph nodes, liver, lung, peritoneum, ovaries, brain. By enhancing the efflux of K+ and influx of Ca++, uroguanylin and related peptides may promote the death of transformed cells and thereby inhibit metastasis.
One of the clinical manifestations of reduced CFTR activity is the inflammation of airway passages (21). This effect may be due to CTFR regulating the expression of NF-KB, chemokines and cytokines (22–25). Recent reports have also suggested that the CFTR channel is involved in the transport and maintenance of reduced glutathione, an antioxidant that plays an important role in protecting against inflammation caused by oxidative stress (39). Enhancement of intracellular levels of cGMP by way of guanylate cyclase activation or by way of inhibition of cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase would be expected to down-regulate these inflammatory stimuli. Thus, uroguanylin-type agonists should be useful in the prevention and treatment of inflammatory diseases of the lung (e.g., asthma), bowel (e.g., ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease), pancreas and other organs.
Overall, it may be concluded that agonists of guanylate cyclase receptor such as uroguanylin have potential therapeutic value in the treatment of a wide variety of inflammatory conditions, cancer (particularly colon cancer) and as anti-metastatic agents. The development of new agonists is therefore of substantial clinical importance.